The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) deployed 2G GSM, introducing digital subscriber identity modules (SIM cards) and the A5/1 stream cipher for over-the-air voice privacy.
NIS2 (Directive (EU) 2022/2555) had to be transposed by 17 October 2024, bringing public electronic communications networks and services, IXPs, DNS and other digital-infrastructure providers under mandatory risk-management and incident-reporting duties. After letters of formal notice to 23 Member States in November 2024, the Commission sent reasoned opinions to 19 on 7 May 2025; in July 2026 it referred Ireland, Spain, France and the Netherlands to the EU Court of Justice.